Roman intelligence services or how the intelligence of ancient Rome worked

2024 Author: Seth Attwood | [email protected]. Last modified: 2024-01-15 07:49

Throughout its history, the Roman state faced enemies, external or internal, who threatened from the sea or from land. It, as in the air, needed complex fortification systems and powerful mobile armies.

However, whether it was a time of prosperity or periods of crisis, the state and rulers needed to devote time to something without which all of the above would quickly collapse, and ambitions would have remained dreams - the organization of intelligence services. But, about everything in order …

Forewarned is forearmed

A striking example of the importance and usefulness of the subject of presentation is the conquest of Gaul by Caesar, because it was the result not only of the superior organizational and combat power of the legions, but also of the skillful use of intelligence. Much effort has been made to gather information about the region and its economy, tribal characteristics and conflicts. The Roman general coldly and cynically used the weaknesses of the Gauls: their boastfulness, volatility, lack of stability, etc. In addition to strategic reconnaissance, Gaius Julius also relied on a developed and organized tactical reconnaissance system, using small and medium reconnaissance units to investigate the situation in front of the advancing legion (at a distance of up to thirty kilometers), as well as to reconnoiter the territory and the location of the enemy during the campaign. In the fourth book of the Notes, Caesar tells what his scouts were able to find out about the situation in the Germanic tribes on the other side of the Rhine. He scrupulously studied their habits, food, life and clothing, and from all observations he was able to draw specific and useful conclusions about the stamina and endurance of German soldiers. These data are now of great value in questions about the ancient Germans.

But it was not Caesar who invented the Roman intelligence system, it was the product of several hundred years of military experience, and the system was not built immediately, but on his own bloody mistakes. Titus Livy(the ancient Roman historian, author of History from the Founding of the City; 59 BC - 17 AD) writes that the Romans began to understand the importance of intelligence only after going through a difficult school of battles with Hannibal (in the army of Carthage, intelligence was much more developed). Ironically, even the Gauls, indignum, had their own intelligence and signaling system at that time! The first evidence that the Romans began to use the signaling system in military intelligence can be found in Livy in his account of how the consul Fabius captured the city of Arpa in Apulia. Three bloody Punic Wars have confirmed the truth: do not fight one enemy too often, otherwise you will teach him how to fight. We can say that it was Hannibal who taught Rome to use intelligence to the fullest.

In preparation for the invasion of Italy across the Alps, Hannibal sent agents throughout Gaul, which brought most of the Gaulish tribes over to Hannibal's side before the Romans knew anything about what was happening. According to Appian, Hannibal sent scouts into the Alps to survey the passes that were to be passed

Not without extensive borrowing. So Polybius (ancient Greek historian, statesman and military leader, 206-124 BC), who previously studied the organization of the intelligence system in the states of the Diadochi, and who had the opportunity to study the system directly on the spot Philip V (king of Macedonia in 221 - 179 BC) during his wars, actively and in every possible way helped with advice Scipio African … From the analysis of the campaigns it is clear that the winner of Hannibal used the methods of the Persian communications service in military intelligence.

The rapid development of the Roman intelligence system dates back to the 1st century. BC, when the power and influence of Rome spread to vast territories of the Hellenistic East. During this period, the Romans had the opportunity to learn first-hand about the various methods of military and political intelligence and the methods of transmitting information. Naturally, the further the legions went, the more the intelligence and information system improved. The conquered lands were filled with Roman merchants, tax collectors, agents. Tellingly, initially the espionage network in Asia Minor was provided by private individuals, because their interest overlapped with the state. I think that lovers of Soviet historiography have already cranked in their heads the image of the conditional Flavius, scribbling a denunciation, which inevitably makes you smile. However, the phenomenon takes place.

What you just don't learn at the Forum.

The decline of the Roman intelligence system falls on the 4th century. from R. Kh. when the effectiveness of the activities of the Roman military intelligence in general fell. According to V. A. Dmitriev, this was one of the reasons for the military and political failures of Rome in the period under review and in the near future.

We had 2 teams of explorators, 75 translators …

Already by the beginning of the Gallic Wars in the 1st century BC, a fairly exhaustive list of terms appeared, applied to various categories of reconnaissance forces. Let's dwell on them in more detail:

Lightly Armed Roman Cavalry

Procursatores (lat. conductors) - light forward detachments, couriers and secret agents. Judging by the statement of Plutarch about Marcellus: "who died the death of not a commander, but a soldier from the lead detachment or a spy", they had sufficient strength to defend themselves in the event of a clash with enemy cavalry, from which it can be concluded that they were used not only in a reconnaissance role, but also to initiate vanguard battles.

When the Roman invasion of Parthia began (53 BC), the procursatores formed the vanguard of the seven legions of Marcus Licinius Crassus. After crossing the Euphrates, the procursatores were deployed to clarify the eastern route towards the Carras: they found the trail of a large number of horses returning from the Romans, but did not meet people

(Plut. Crass. 20.1)

A characteristic feature is that the procurators did not act without a lion's share of arrogance. For example, E. A. Razin, in The History of Military Art, criticizes them for careless intelligence measures. Reconnaissance was often carried out in combat, relying on well-trained warriors. And at times this led to stupid victims, when the commander, as in the example above, could die in such an operation.

• Speculatores(Latin investigators / scouts) are military units that initially carried out espionage assignments, i.e. were spies. Roman speculatores acted at night to warn of a change in enemy disposition. Accordingly, special qualities were required from recruits: good night vision, the ability to navigate by the stars, etc. In addition, speculators often served as executors of executions.

  Although, the researcher Le Boeck Yang believes that the initial task of the speculatores was precisely the protection and escort of the commanders, and later they performed intelligence, and then courier and judicial duties. Already in the 1st century. from R. Kh. in many ways moved away from military intelligence and became associated with political espionage.

Interesting fact:according to ES Danilov, the heavenly bodies themselves, the moments of the figurative correlation of constellations with mythological plots could easily be perceived and used for practical purposes (night reconnaissance) by representatives of the Roman military circles, including speculators.

Miniature with Roman scouts

• Mensores and Mentatores (lat. engineers) - these terms were used in ancient times to define tribunes and centurions, who marked the place for the camp. Later it was performed by techniques bearing the same name. Relatively later (from Diocletian) they are defined as imperial quartermasters.
• Exploratores (lat. scouts) - mounted units of military intelligence, the size of which varies from 20 to 200 people. This is the most numerous part, the rearguard, which carried out reconnaissance activities. Until the II century, it did not constitute a permanent unit, then, perhaps, it became part of the legion on a permanent basis with its own commander. According to Vegetius, the commander personally chose exploratores from among the most cunning and circumspect warriors.

The main and original function of exploratores is related to the tactical tasks of the army. The range of their activities was wide: attracting defectors and deserters from the enemy side, obtaining information for developing a plan of the area along which the army was to move, delivering local guides and supervising them (judging by the inscription about the career of Tiberius Claudius Maximus). By the 1st century AD, exploratores continued their service on the battlefield, unlike speculators.

Interesting Facts

1. The exploratores captions are associated with numeriand are distinguished in 2 types: exploratores et numerus, and numerus exploratorum. In this regard, there are two directions in historiography that determine their relationship. Callis, Mann, Rowell consider exploratores and numerus to be two different formations, and Stein, Nesselhauf, Vac, Vigels include both numerus and exploratores in the same category.

2. It is known that there was a so-called "exploration wreath" - corona exploratoria … It was presented as a successful exploration and was decorated with stylized sun, moon and star.

In addition, the legion always had special services, to varying degrees, associated with intelligence activities: interpretes - translators, as well quaestionarii - tormentors / executioners who were involved in the processing of prisoners (captives) in all available ways. No less active was the role of the defectors - transfugae, although they were treated with great caution; they were usually accepted into the army, as did Pompey and Octavian. Tellingly, it was the huge number of defectors that provided Augustus with an overwhelming superiority in clashes with Mark Antony.

In addition to prisoners, defectors and civilians, knowledgeable people are always the carriers of the necessary information. E. S. Danilov divides them into four conditional groups:

1. "Expert" … This is an individual whose professional knowledge and contacts provide first-class guidance on the issue being developed. It allows you to take a fresh look at the existing problem, provides basic materials, leads to unknown sources of information.
2. "Internal informant" … This is a person from the enemy group, recruited and supplying data for various reasons for him.
3. "Frivolous informant" … This is any informed person who speaks out interesting facts in a business, friendly, sociable or intimate conversation. A message that flashes by accident can be extremely valuable.
4. "Random source" … Sometimes it happens that an individual who is completely not considered as a potential informant, suddenly turns out to be a bearer of unique information.

"Paying a Briton Spy, Northern England, 1st Century A. D." Angus mcbride

It is also worth adding that the Romans actively used information coming from the intelligence of the allies - socii, local informants - indiceslike Caesar, both at the tactical and strategic levels. According to Polybius, during the period of the republic, the consuls appointed twelve prefects to command the allies. These prefects took away one third of the cavalry and a fifth of the infantry - extraordinarii … Six hundred horsemen of the Extraordinaries moved in loose formation and carried out reconnaissance. The Senate also used allies. In many countries there were agents of his influence, clients and hospiters of Roman citizens, peculiar unspoken allies … One of these was Callicrates, who contributed to the growth of Roman influence in the Achaean Union.

At times, however, incompetent military leaders ignored the information coming from the allies. The most famous and terrible example of such negligence is the defeat in the Teutoburg forest.

In addition, there is evidence recorded by Ammianus Marcellinus, on the basis of which it can be concluded that there was also sent agents as counterintelligence. This is a reference from 368 about the abolition of such an institution by Theodosius:

“The class of people that have existed for a long time, about whom I told something in the" History of Constant ", gradually became corrupt, and as a result he [Theodosius] drove them out of their posts. They were exposed that they, in a thirst for profit at different times, betrayed to the enemies everything that happened in our country, while their duty was to be everywhere in all distant lands to give information to the military leaders about the uprisings among neighboring peoples"

From Ammianus, we know about the satrap of Corduena, Jovinian, the secret ally of the Romans. Apparently, they turned to him for accurate information about the military preparations of the Persians.

Recruitment

Fly in the ointment in a barrel of honey

Of course, the Roman intelligence system evolved over time, but it also had a significant flaw, dating back to Caesar. It was Gaius Julius who institutionalized some of the most important features of intelligence, in particular the right of direct access for intelligence officers personally to the commander. Thus, the agents were always with the commander or commander, and often went to reconnaissance with him, which, on the one hand, significantly increased efficiency, and on the other, exposed him to constant risk.

Ultimately, the crisis of the empire in the III-IV centuries required the almost constant presence of one of the commanders-in-chief (and by this time there were two or more) with an army on the border to repel attacks. Thus, in A. D. 378. at Adrianople, the Roman army led Valens IIwas preparing to repel the onslaught of the Goths at the Danube Limes, which is typical of its exploratorscorrectly reported the strength and location of the enemy. And then centuries of practice of the tandem of the commander and his scouts came back to haunt. The results of the battle turned out to be monstrous: the army of Eastern Rome was completely defeated, and the emperor died, the empire was on the verge of collapse.

Magister Militum and its Bucellaria, 4th century A. D. Art by Jose Daniel.

The spies by the will of fate

War and money always go hand in hand. That the Roman traders are mercatores they could be spies at the same time, all the neighbors of Rome understood well, and rightly they were wary of them, setting all sorts of frameworks in their activities, and in case of war they even began to kill them en masse, as happened, for example, during the Mithridates wars. Trading corporations used every means available to fight competitors, they possessed both a wide network of informants and all the qualities that were more suitable for a spy than a trader. There were also disadvantages: merchants are always greedy and act only on the basis of their own profit, and the information from them was not always true, often being only rumors. However, this quality was also actively used, sending out scarecrow rumors. Traders could also do tactical reconnaissance. This was explained by the banal need for the sale of military booty and the acquisition of things necessary for the army, so the former accompanied the latter on campaigns.

In the "History of Civil Wars" Appian gives us information about how Mark Antony, even before the feud with Octavian, is trying to undermine his authority among the plebs. In response to this, Augustus has to use his agents, sending them under the guise of merchants to Antony's camp. Perhaps this is the first evidence of work frumentarians as political agents. Appian of Alexandria argues that such propaganda was effective enough that it was impossible to distinguish honest merchants from disguised spies.

Frumentarii - (lat. frumentarii, from frumentum - grain) - in ancient Rome, initially military personnel who were engaged in the supply of bread for the army, and then servants, endowed with the functions of political investigation.

Roman soldiers are reaping bread in the field. Relief from Trajan's Column

As a result, such original use of seemingly not directly involved in the case of persons turned a simple service for the delivery of supplies and letters into a whole service for surveillance and espionage. It got to the point that by the 2nd century A. D. already each legion had its own detachment of Frumentarii.

Frumentarii shared police functions with intelligence officers, for example, searching for and pursuing robbers, keeping prisoners in custody, etc. During the persecution of Christians, the Frumentarii spied on them and made arrests. Moreover, the emperors constantly resorted to their help in matters of surveillance and control of their subordinates. Emperor Hadrian especially distinguished himself in this. Awarded by nature with irrepressible curiosity and suspicion, he collected information about the personal lives of his entourage, at times even performing a perlustration of letters. Frumentarii were often used to eliminate particularly disagreeable persons.

It is not difficult to guess what such abuse of "foragers" led to. By the 3rd century, the Frumentarii had acquired such a terrible reputation that the Emperor Diocletian was forced to abolish the service entirely. Laughter is caused by the fact that after a while he also created a similar service - Agentes in rebus (lat. «those who are engaged in business ") or in the Greek manner magistrianoi, which was in the department of the Master of Office (head of the palace administration) and performed essentially the same functions. Tellingly, the Magistrians existed in this form until the 8th century.

Guy Aurelius Valerius Diocletian, Roman emperor from 284 to 305 from R. Kh.

Aeternum institutum

Systems, however, don't change much unless circumstances change, and during the five centuries of the greatness of the Roman Empire, there was little change in the intelligence system. During the entire period, reconnaissance was carried out by ear and sight, orally or in writing, at a speed no faster than that of the fastest horse. What was familiar to Rome will remain, in approximately the same form, for the world for the next 1500 years.

The collapse of the Western Empire in the 5th century A. D. also entailed the collapse of organized intelligence services and many other support services, such as cartography (although Roman maps seem strange to us, since they usually took the form of route paths), their disappearance was a serious loss for generations after). But that's a completely different story …