The era of Stalin. 1. The structure of Soviet power

2024 Author: Seth Attwood | [email protected]. Last modified: 2023-12-16 15:55

". … … At this great historical moment, we will vow never to forget the tremendous role played by the worker in our common cause of political liberation."

(From the speech of the lawyer Mandelstam at the congress of lawyers. 1905)

The Soviets represent a new type of state apparatus, which is not only fundamentally different, but directly opposed to the state apparatus of modern "democracy" and not only in its class nature, but in the principles of organization and methods of its work.

The structure of elections and the principle of operation of the lower apparatus of the Soviets, from local councils to regional and republican ones, have already been described in various versions, therefore, this article is not touched upon. The most important thing in the work of the Soviets and, in general, of the Soviet government is the interaction of the upper echelons of power, which for some reason is bypassed, and all because the archives in all the republics of the former USSR are carefully guarded and they are unlikely to be open to researchers.

(From the resolution of the Constituent Congress of the USSR)

On November 2 (15), 1917, Lenin signed the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, drawn up by Comrade Stalin, which proclaimed the equality and sovereignty of the peoples of Russia and confirmed their right to self-determination up to secession.

These acts of the Soviet government strengthened the desire of all workers of previously oppressed nationalities for autonomy, independent republics were "organized": Ukraine, Belarus, the Transcaucasian republics, Central Asian republics, in which the Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies played the leading role in management.

The reason for the unification of the independent republics into a single Union was the Genoa conference, held on February 22, 1922, where only the RSFSR was invited, represented by the Central Executive Committee of the Bolsheviks. Republics like: Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Bukhara. Georgia, the Far Eastern Republic, Ukraine and Khorezm instructed, by a special protocol, the government of the RSFSR to represent their interests at the Genoa conference.

At the initiative of the Transcaucasian SFSR (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia), the Ukrainian Republic and Belarus, all temporary agreements on military and economic assistance between the republics were formalized by bilateral treaties, but, over time, demanded a closer and more permanent unification of the Soviet republics.

The past republican Congresses of Soviets: the Transcaucasian Federation (13 / XII 1922), the Ukrainian Republic (13 / XII 1922), the Byelorussian Republic (16 / XII 1922) and the RSFSR (26 / XII 1922) adopted, each separately, the decree on the creation of a unified state of the USSR and on joining it.

On December 30 of the same year, a joint congress was held, which laid the foundation for the existence of a multinational union Soviet socialist state, adopting a declaration and an agreement on the formation of the USSR. The congress was attended by 2,215 delegates, including 548 with an advisory vote. The congress elected the USSR Central Executive Committee (Central Executive Committee), consisting of 371 members and 138 candidates.

On January 31, 1924, the Second Congress of the USSR adopted and approved the First Union Constitution, which served as the basis for the Constitutions of all Union and Autonomous Republics. So, each of the union and autonomous republics had their own Constitution. So, according to the Constitution of the Belarusian Republic, the state languages in the Republic were four languages: Belarusian, Russian, Polish and Jewish. In the rest of the Republics, constitutions are developed in accordance with local and national conditions.

According to the Constitution of the USSR, the supreme body of power is the Congress of Soviets of the Union, in the republics - the Congress of Soviets, both of the Union Republic and of the autonomous republic, in regions and districts, congresses of deputies.

In addition to regular congresses, extraordinary ones are also allowed, convened at the proposal of the above-standing congresses or their executive committees, or by the corresponding executive body of Soviet power, both on their own initiative and at the request of the Soviets.

Republican congresses and congresses of autonomous republics are silent in history. So the 8th Extraordinary Congress of the USSR adopted on December 5, 1936 a new Constitution of the USSR. From January to April 1937, congresses of Soviets were held: 17th - All-Russian, 11th - Ukrainian SSR, 12th - Byelorussian SSR, 9th - Azerbaijan SSR, 8th - Georgian SSR, 9th Armenian SSR, 5th Turkmen SSR, 6th Uzbek SSR, 6th Tajik SSR, 10th Kazakh SSR, 5th Kirghiz SSR.

Republican congresses elected their own executive governing bodies, independently formed law enforcement bodies and prosecutors, and controlled the elections of the judiciary. 99% of tax collections remained at the disposal of the local Council of People's Commissars, whose leaders were chosen from among the national cadres.

Let us consider the USSR Congress separately. The Union Congress elects the Central Executive Committee of the Union, consisting of two equal Soviets: the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities, which will be discussed later.

The supreme stages of the Union's power are recognized: the Congresses of the Councils of the Union, and in the period between the Congresses - the Central Executive Committee of the Union (CEC) and its Presidium, consisting of the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities and, as the highest governing body, the Council of People's Commissars. This is how the question is decided by the constitution.

The Central Executive Committee of the Union is a new institution and consists of the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. This introduction of the national element caused a lot of talk and bewilderment, because they saw in it an imitation of the bourgeois bicameral system. But this similarity is purely external, and something similar, but of a different class content, we see only in the bourgeois federal republics. But the external similarity is far from complete:

a) The Union Council consists of representatives of the Union republics in proportion to the population of each of them. All of them are elected by the Congress of the Union.

b) The Council of Nationalities is formed from representatives of the union and autonomous Soviet socialist republics, 5 representatives from each, and from representatives (1 representative each) of the autonomous regions of the RSFSR and other union republics. It is generally approved by the same Congress of Councils of the Union.

This means that both Councils, no matter how different their origin, receive their powers from a single source - the Congress of the Union, to which they are both responsible.

They are equal in their work. They, under the general name of the Central Executive Committee of the Union, issue codes, decrees, resolutions and orders, combine the work on legislation and administration of the Union and determine the scope of activities of the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the Union. All decrees, decisions and orders of the Central Executive Committee of the Union are binding on the entire territory of the Union. Since the CEC of the Union meets only at sessions, the Presidium of the CEC is the highest legislative, executive and administrative body of the Union between sessions. But all decrees and decisions that determine the general norms of the political and economic life of the Union, as well as making fundamental changes in the existing practice of the state bodies of the USSR, must necessarily go back to the consideration and approval of the Central Executive Committee of the Union itself.

So, the Central Executive Committee of the Union, this is the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities, taken together; Although they meet simultaneously, they are separate, and they also discuss and resolve all issues separately. But by a special decree, as the practice has introduced, they can listen to reports jointly and even conduct debates jointly. But they always vote separately.

Each of them has its own presidium of 9 people. They are convened simultaneously in sessions, at least three times a year, and at the same time go home. They consider all decrees, codes and resolutions that come to them from the Presidium of the Central Executive Committee and the Council of People's Commissars of the Union, the People's Commissariats of the Union, the Central Executive Committees of the Union republics, as well as those arising on their own initiative. Bills receive the force of law only if they are adopted by both the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities and are published on behalf of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR. In the event of a disagreement between both Soviets, the issue is transferred to the conciliation commission created by them, and if an agreement is not reached in the conciliation commission, the issue is referred to a joint meeting of the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. But if even here, with a separate vote, there is no majority in this or that Council, the issue, at the request of one of them, may be submitted for resolution at the next or extraordinary Congress of the Councils of the Union.

In the period between sessions of the CEC of the Union, the supreme body of power is the Presidium of the CEC, formed by the CEC, consisting of 27 members, including 18 people from two presidiums - the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities. The election of the remaining 9 members of the Presidium takes place at a joint meeting of the Union Council and the Council of Nationalities, with each Council voting separately. In the same way, the chairmen of the Central Executive Committee of the Union are elected from the composition of its Presidium by the Central Executive Committee of the Union, according to the number of union republics, which perform their duties in turn. Until 1936, there were 6 of them in terms of the number of Republics.

The executive and administrative body of the Central Executive Committee of the Union is the Council of People's Commissars of the Union (Sovnarkom). The Council of People's Commissars of the Union consists of the Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the Union, his deputies (their number depends on the CEC) and ten People's Commissars, namely: five all-Union - for foreign affairs, military and naval affairs, foreign and domestic trade, communications and post and telegraphs, moreover, the People's Commissariat for the regulation of domestic trade enjoys only the rights of the united Commissariat - and the five united - the Workers 'and Peasants' Inspection (Rabkrin), the Supreme Council of the National Economy (VSNKh), labor, finance and the manager of the central statistical office. In addition to these members who have a casting vote, the chairman of the OGPU (United State Political Administration) participates in the Council of People's Commissars of the Union with an advisory vote.

At first glance, the Council of People's Commissars of the Union seems to be only the executive power, but, the constitution explains, within the limits provided to him by the Central Executive Committee of the Union, he also issues decrees that are binding on the entire territory of the Union. Draft decrees and resolutions for consideration by the Council of People's Commissars of the Union come both from individual People's Commissars of the Union and from the Central Executive Committees of the Union republics and their presidiums.

One list of the people's commissariats is enough to see how predominant the role of this central government should be. Five all-union commissariats, five all-republican and six union and autonomous republics. The power of the People's Commissars is very great, but they cannot be compared with ministers. Firstly, the People's Commissars are elected by the people themselves, workers and peasants, who elect the Central Executive Committee and union, republican, and secondly, the People's Commissars act locally not through any officials, but through local Councils of Deputies or Executive Committees, which are themselves elected the working population from among them; finally, thirdly - the People's Commissars constantly give reports in their work and activities not only to the CEC and Congresses, but also directly to the working population of the capital, where they make public reports at public meetings, meetings, where everyone can ask them questions and express your dissatisfaction.

Every citizen can appeal to a court of any of the Commissioners, members of the Executive Committee, members of the Council, and deputies of any level. The position does not exempt from responsibility, but, on the contrary, the higher the position, the greater the responsibility. There have already been several cases that People's Commissars were also tried without any hesitation when they violated their duty and rank.

The collegiality of decision-making is clearly demonstrated by the Supreme Council of National Economy (VSNKh), which regulates and organizes all production and distribution and manages all enterprises of the Republic. The plenum of the Supreme Council of the National Economy is formed as follows:

a) from the Republican Central Executive Committee of Soviets - 10;

b) from the Republican Professional Production Association - 30, (including from the All-Union Council of Trade Unions 1):

c) from the regional Councils of the National Economy (2 X 10) - 20;

d) from the Republican Council of the Workers' Cooperation Unions - 2;

e) from the People's Commissariat of Food - I;

f) from the People's Commissariat of Ways of Communication - 1:

j) from the People's Commissariat of Labor - 1;

c) from the People's Commissariat of Agriculture - 1;

i) from the People's Commissariat for Financial Affairs - 1;

j) from the People's Commissariat of Trade and Industry - I;

k) from the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs - 1;

Total. … … 69. person.

Note. People's Commissariats, not named above, have the right to send their representatives with the right of an advisory vote to the meeting of the Plenum of the Supreme Council of the National Economy.

All members of the Plenum of the Supreme Council of the National Economy receive their powers for a six-month term and are involved in regular work by the decision of the Presidium. The Plenum meets at least once a month.

The management of the work of the Supreme Council of the National Economy is entrusted to the Presidium in the number of 9 persons, of whom 8 are elected by the Plenum of the Supreme Council of the National Economy and approved by the Council of People's Commissars, and the Chairman is elected by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets and enjoys the rights of the People's Commissar, The basic laws of the autonomous Soviet socialist republics are adopted by their congresses of Soviets and submitted for approval by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, and finally approved by the All-Russian Congress of Soviets.

The 1925 constitution also defines the legislative power of each autonomous republic. As a general rule, on its territory the following are obligatory: all-union laws, as well as the codes of the RSFSR with amendments made with the permission of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (article 3 of the introductory law to the Land Code, article 9 introduce, the law to the Civil Code, article 4 introduce, the law to The Hijacked Code, etc.). Finally, in the area of running independent people's commissariats, local mandatory decrees are allowed that do not contradict all-republican laws.

For the autonomous regions, the constitution is replaced by the "Statute on the Autonomous Region" adopted by its Congress of Soviets and finally approved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.

The prosecutor's office is an organization within the Union republic, there was no all-Union prosecutor until 1934, but there is only a prosecutor at the Supreme Court of the Union to oversee the constitutional legality.

By law, the prosecutor of the Republic was the People's Commissariat of Justice, his deputy and assistants. In the field - local provincial (regional) prosecutors and their assistants, appointed by the Prosecutor of the Republic, i.e. from the center.

Autonomous republics have their own republican prosecutors who are not subordinate to the Prosecutor of the Republic. So all the court cases described in modern historiography were an internal affair of the autonomous republics, where the role of investigators, prosecutors and judges was played by persons elected and subordinate to the local authorities (city or district) by the Executive Committee, which also formed the police staff.

The masses are drawn into the work of the soviets in various forms: by electing their deputies to the soviets; recalling deputies who did not justify the confidence of their voters, and replacing them with new ones, by electing deputies of members of the executive branch. The voter participates in the discussion of reports on the work of the deputies and the work of the council as a whole, together with the deputies he listens to the reports of the members of the Council of People's Commissars and other categories of elective positions.

Discusses through meetings of council plenums, through the organization of sections at councils and deputy groups at enterprises, creating an asset from workers who are not members of the council, but work in sections and deputy groups. But in the work of the soviets, in the work of the entire state apparatus as a whole, all other mass organizations of workers are also involved: trade unions, the Komsomol, cooperatives, voluntary societies, etc. All of them, under the leadership of the Party, carry out work on the administration of the state, on the restructuring of society, on the construction of socialism.

An extremely important fundamental difference between the Soviet state system and the bourgeois one is the complete abolition of the separation of powers between the legislative and executive powers. This division was a "symbol of faith" in European theory of the state during the growth of capitalism. It represents the theoretical basis of the parliamentary system, which has long been promoted by bourgeois theoreticians as one of the most important conditions for "freedom".

This theory arose at the beginning of the 18th century, when the middle bourgeoisie demanded that the king participate in the government. It was a period of reformation in the church, fearing a revolution, the king gave control to the middle class of the bourgeoisie: - "I write the laws, you obey them." A bit oversimplified, but for sure. The theory of separation of powers was developed by Montesquieu (into legislative, executive and judicial), on which all democrats mainly rely.

It is known that Montesquieu was an opponent of the revolution of the poor, he was a supporter of the king. He also put forward the theory of separation of powers in order to save at least a particle of royal power. He does not construct theories of peaceful development; he, on the contrary, proceeds from the "general, both internal and external, war of people", because, according to his theory, "the union of people into society and gives rise to war." Having frightened his reader with this general war, Montesquieu explains that it is not the question of who holds the power in whose hands, whether all, some or one, but how it is organized and furnished. And the democrats, subsequently, created from it a means of reconciling all classes.

And the people, as they were in feudal dependence, serfdom, and remained at the trough, because the laws are written for the authorities. The first French Revolution of 1795 vividly demonstrated the entire evolution of the division of power.

The Soviet government wrote laws for a citizen of its state, regardless of the position and rank, and itself controlled the implementation of these laws. Our reality: having freed us from the communist "yoke", they immediately limited the manifestations and expression of feelings. C'est la vie … This is … democracy!

The second question, which is always heard: one partisanship or a multiparty system? Let's go back again to the 18th century, when landowners and industrialists fought for primacy in parliament, petty-bourgeois fuss, and the people again remained outside the scope of attention. Since then, the "idea" of a multiparty system has remained as a way to distract the masses from the main task of the deputy: "Protection of the voter."

They reproach Soviet Power for one thing, and I wanted to finish the first part of the article with the words of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin:

“When we are accused of the dictatorship of one party … we say:“Yes, the dictatorship of one party! We stand on it and cannot leave this ground. … … This party merged with the working class, and she alone could lead him to a deep and radical change in the old society (Lenin, XVI, p. 296).

But, adds Lenin elsewhere: “In the masses, we are still a drop in the ocean, and we can govern only when we correctly express what the people are aware of. Without this, the Communist Party will not lead the proletariat, and the proletariat will not lead the masses, and the whole machine will fall apart. (Lenin, XVIII, 2, p.56).

“The policy of the Bolsheviks in matters of local self-government and national minorities is a masterpiece of ingenuity and grace. None of the talented statesmen of our time in other countries can compete with them in the methods of satisfying the claims of national minorities”(E. D. Dillon, Russia Today and Tomorrow, 1928, p. 228, in English).