Deadly radiation behind the magnetosphere refutes myths about flights to the moon

2024 Author: Seth Attwood | [email protected]. Last modified: 2023-12-16 15:55

To determine radiation doses when flying to the Moon we considered solar wind and fluxes of protons and electrons; solar flares, which, during maximum activity, together with X-ray radiation from the Sun, sharply increase the radiation hazard to astronauts; galactic cosmic rays (GCR), as the most high-energy component of the corpuscular flow in interplanetary space (150-300 mrem per day); also touched radiation belt of the Earth (ERB) … It was indicated that RPZ is one of the most dangerous factors on the Earth-Moon communication route for cosmonauts.

Let us determine the radiation dose during the passage of the radiation belts, as well as take into account the radiation hazard of the solar wind. Let's use the generally accepted model of the Earth's radiation belt AP-8 min (1995).

The proton component of the earth's radiation belt

In fig. 1 shows the distribution of protons of various energies in the plane of the geomagnetic equator. The abscissa is the parameter L in the radii of the Earth, the ordinate is the proton flux density in cm-2 s-1. This figure shows the time-averaged values of the proton flux density according to the data of Soviet and foreign authors, referring to the period I96I-I975 [48].

In fig. 2 shows the results of recent studies of the composition and dynamics of the proton component of the Earth's radiation belt, carried out on artificial Earth satellites and orbital stations [50].

Rice. 2. Distribution of integral fluxes of protons in the plane of the geomagnetic equator. L is the distance from the center of the Earth, expressed in the radii of the Earth. (The numbers on the curves correspond to the lower limit of the proton energy in MeV).

Let us use the formula for calculating the equivalent dose of radiation per unit time that a person receives in space for the skin and internal organs, depending on the thickness of the external protection and ionizing radiation. Table 1 shows the equivalent radiation doses that an astronaut receives when passing twice the internal proton RPZ while in the Apollo command module (7.5 g / cm2).

Tab. 1. Equivalent doses of radiation received by the skin and internal organs of the astronaut, taking into account the protection of the Apollo command module during the passage of the internal proton RPZ

* A more accurate calculation of the radiation dose is associated with taking into account the Bragg peak; will increase the value of the radiation dose by 1.5-2 times.

During magnetic storms, significant variations in high-energy protons are observed. The appearance of a powerful new belt of protons at L ~ 2.5 was registered by the CRRES satellite on March 24, 1991.

At the moment of a giant sudden impulse of the geomagnetic field at L ~ 2.8, a new proton belt was formed, equivalent to the stable inner belt, which has a maximum at L ~ 1.5. In fig. 4. Radial profiles of radiation belts for protons with Ep = 20-80 MeV and electrons with Ee> 15 MeV are shown, plotted according to the data of measurements on the CRRES satellite before the event on March 24, 1991 (day 80), three days after the formation of a new belt (day 86) and after ~ 6 months (day 257). It can be seen that the proton fluxes more than doubled, and the fluxes of electrons with Ee> 15 MeV exceeded the quiet level by almost three orders of magnitude. Subsequently, they were registered until mid-1993.

Apollo 17 (the last landing on the moon) six months before the start was preceded by three powerful magnetic storms - June 17-19, August 4-8 after a powerful solar-proton event, October 31 to November 1, 1972. The same applies Apollo 8 (the first flyby of the Moon with a man on board), which was preceded by a powerful magnetic storm in two months, October 30-31, 1968. Obviously, a significant expansion of the proton belt and an increase in the radiation dose to 10 Sieverts should be expected. This is a lethal dose of radiation for humans.

For proton fluxes, there is an altitude variation of the proton intensity, which can be written as:

J (B) = J (Be) (BE / B) n

where B and Ve are the magnetic field strength at the desired point and at the equator, a J (B) and J (Ve) are intensities as a function of B and Ve; n = 1, 8-2 [50].

For example, for protons in the plane of the geomagnetic equator at latitudes λ ~ 30 ° (V / Ve = 3) and λ ~ 44 ° (V / Ve = 10), the value of radiation doses of the proton component will decrease by 10 and 100 times, respectively. And if on the Earth-Moon trajectory, according to NASA's legend, the flight took place above the geomagnetic latitude of 30 degrees, then, according to the universal altitude variation of the intensity of proton fluxes, the radiation dose can be reduced by an order of magnitude.

However, the return to Earth and splashdown was near the geomagnetic equator (Apollo 12 and Apollo 15 - 0-2 degrees north geomagnetic latitude, taking into account the annual displacement of the magnetic poles). The radiation doses will correspond maximum values. The passage of the Earth's proton radiation belt causes the effect three orders of magnitude higher official doses of radiation for Apollo.

The result is acute radiation sickness, a launch to the Moon according to the NASA scheme after magnetic storms - it is 100% fatal … The actual radiation doses received will be much higher than the official NASA. Obviously the American landing is a made-up legend. Unfortunately, this evidence requires the most solid and most persistent evidence. For too many people lack eyes to see it (F. Nietzsche).

The electronic component of the earth's radiation belt

The outer radiation belt was discovered by Soviet scientists, located at altitudes from 9000 to 45000 km. It is much wider than the inner one (extending 50 ° north and 50 ° south of the equator). The electronic component of the radiation belts undergoes significant spatial and temporal variations depending on three parameters: local time, the level of geomagnetic disturbance, and the phase of the solar activity cycle.

The maximum absorbed dose created by the outer belt in one hour can be enormous - up to 100 Gray. The problem of radiation protection of the outer belt is less complicated than the problem of radiation protection of the inner belt. The outer belt is made up mostly of low-energy electrons, which are protected by conventional spacecraft skin materials.

However, with such protection hard and soft X-rays are generated ("X-ray tube" effect). X-rays are ionizing and deeply penetrating, all other things being equal for other types of radiation. The flight through the radiation belt on the way to the Moon and back takes about 7 hours. Apollo 13 according to legend, NASA did "return" in the lunar module with a thickness of protection five times lessthan for the command module. During this time, radiation affects the tissues of living organisms, can be the cause of radiation sickness, radiation burns and malignant tumors, and finally, it is a mutagenic factor.

We will use the following data and estimate the radiation dose

Below, the profiles of the integral intensity of electrons of various energies averaged over time and over all values of longitude are presented for (a) - the minimum of solar activity, (b) - for the epoch of maximum [48].

The figure shows that during the epoch of maximum solar activity, the radiation dose created by the outer belt increases by 4-7 times. Recall that 1969 - 1972 was the year of the peak of 11-year solar activity. As well as for protons, for the electronic component of the ERB there is a universal altitude variation, n = 0, 46 [50]. The altitude movement for electrons is less critical than for protons. For example, for electrons at latitudes λ ~ 30 ° (V / Ve = 3) and λ ~ 44 ° (V / Ve = 10), the value of the radiation doses of the electronic component will decrease by 1, 7 and 3, 1 times, respectively. This means that according to the NASA flight to the Moon and return to Earth, Apollo can't escape electronic component of the RPZ. The results of calculating the radiation dose and the characteristics of the electronic component of the ERP used are shown in Table 2.

Tab. 2. Characteristics of the electronic component of the ERP, the effective range of electrons in Al, the time of flight of the ERB by Apollo to the Moon and upon returning to the Earth, the ratio of specific radiation and ionization energy losses, the absorption coefficients of X-rays for Al and water, the equivalent and absorbed dose of radiation *

The results show that conventional spacecraft protection reduces the radiation effect of the electronic component of the radiation belts by a factor of thousands. The obtained values of the radiation dose are not dangerous for the life of astronauts. The main contribution to radiation doses is made by electrons with energies of 0.3-3 MeV, which generate hard X-rays.

Note the fact that the radiation effect is 1-2 orders of magnitude higher than the official NASA report for the Apollo missions gives. So much for Apollo 13the value of the absorbed dose is 0.24 rad. The calculation gives a value of ~ 34, 5 rad, this 144 times more … At the same time, the radiation effect almost doubles with a decrease in effective protection from 7.5 to 1.5 g / cm2, while the NASA report indicates the opposite. For Apollo 8 and Apollo 11 the official radiation doses are 0, 16 and 0, 18 rad, respectively.

The calculation gives 19.4 rad. This is 121 and 108 times less, respectively. And only for Apollo 14 the official radiation doses are 1, 14 glad, which is 17 less than the calculated one. There are seasonal variations for the electronic component of the RPZ. In fig. 5 shows the fluxes of relativistic electrons for one pass of the belt according to the data of the GLONASS satellite and the geomagnetic indices Кр and Dst for 1994-1996. Bold lines represent measurement smoothing results. The presented data demonstrate well noticeable seasonal variations: the electron fluxes in spring and autumn are 5-6 times higher than the minimum ones - in winter and summer.

Launch and landing Apollo 13 took place in the spring of 1970-11-04 and 1970-17-04, respectively. Obviously, the electron fluxes will be several times higher than the average. This means that the value of the absorbed radiation dose will increase several times and will be 43-52 rad. This is 200 times more than the official data. Similarly, for Apollo 16 (launch and landing, respectively, 1972-16-04 and 1972-27-04) the radiation dose will be 25-30 rad. During magnetic storms, there is a change in the intensity of electrons in the ERB, sometimes 10-100 times and more during the epoch of maximum solar activity. In this case, the radiation doses can rise to dangerous values for the life of astronauts and amount to 10 Sieverts and more. As a rule, during these periods, injection of particles predominates, especially at strong magnetic disturbances. In fig. 6 shows the profiles of the intensity of electrons of various energies in quiet conditions (Fig. 6a) and 2 days after the magnetic storm on September 4, 1966 (Fig. 6b) [48].

One of the flights to the moon according to the NASA report was Apollo 14: Alan Shepard, Edgar Mitchell, Stuart Rusa 1971-31-01 - 1971-09-02 GMT / 216: 01: 58 Third moon landing: 1971-05-02 09:18:11 - 1971-06-02 18:48:42 33 h 31 min / 9 h 23 min 42.9.

On January 27, a few days before the Apollo launch, a moderate magnetic storm began, which turned into a small storm on January 31 [49], which caused a solar flare towards the Earth on 01.24.1971. Obviously, an increase in the radiation level can be expected 10-100 times or 1-10 Sievert (100-1000 rad). In the case of a radiation dose of 10 Sieverts the radiation effect when flying through the Van Alen belt - 100% fatal.

Flight results Apollo 14 It was:

In fig. 8 shows the change in the intensity profiles of electrons with an energy of 290-690 keV before and after a magnetic storm.

Rice. 8 shows that after 5 days the density of fluxes of electrons with an energy of 290-690 keV is significantly expanded and 40-60 times higher than before the magnetic storm, after 15 days - 30-40 times higher, after 30 days - 5-10 times more, after 60 days - 3-5 times more. Only after 3 months the electronic component of the ERP comes to an equilibrium state. Significant spatial and temporal changes in electron fluxes in the entire region of the belts during one year are shown in Fig. 9.

As can be seen, significant variations in the electronic component of the ERB in intensity and in space of a relatively quiet state of the Earth's radiation belt take a quarter of a year. During magnetic storms, particle fluxes significantly expand into the outer region and "slide" closer to the Earth, filling previously empty areas of trapped radiation.

A sharp increase in electron flux creates a real threat to satellites and spacecraft pilots on the Earth-Moon path, located in the zone of bursts of their flux. Quite a few cases have already been noted when the failure of individual satellite systems or even the termination of their functioning is associated with a sharp increase in the flux of relativistic electrons. A powerful stream of electrons with an energy of several MeV, through and through the shell of the satellite, electrons with lower energy generate a huge flux of secondary bremsstrahlung, consisting of hard X-rays.

Radiation doses in the circumlunar space and on the surface of the moon

In near-earth orbit, astronauts are protected by the Earth's magnetosphere. In circumlunar space or on the lunar surface, the entire solar wind flow is taken up by the body of the spacecraft or lunar module. The flux of protons can be neglected (obviously, except for solar-proton events). The density of the electron flux in the solar wind changes by two to three orders of magnitude, sometimes within only one week.

When they collide with the skin of a ship or a module, electrons stop and give rise to X-rays, which have a huge penetrating ability (the thickness of the shielding 7.5 g / cm2 of aluminum will only halve the radiation dose). Below is a graph of changes in the radiation dose, rad / day from 1996 to 2013, which an astronaut receives with an external protection thickness of 1.5 g / cm2:

Rice. 10. Changes in the radiation dose, rad / day from 1996 to 2013, which an astronaut receives with an outer shielding thickness of 1.5 g / cm2 in the circumlunar space. The nonlinear scale on the left is the electron flux levels for the solar wind according to the ACE satellite data, the nonlinear scale on the right is the radiation dose in units of rad per day. The horizontal lines mark the levels for comparison: yellow is the dose on a single chest x-ray, orange is the dose on tomography of the vertebrae.

From fig. 10 that the radiation doses in the circumlunar space and on the lunar surface are irregular. In the year of minimum solar activity, radiation doses are 0, 0001 rad. In the year of maximum solar activity, they vary from 0.003 to 1 rad / day (note - for electrons rem = rad; the irregularity of electron fluxes in the solar wind during the years of maximum solar activity is associated with solar flares that occur daily).

For a month in the lunar space, astronauts for a value corresponding to October 1-31, 2001 receive doses of 0.5 rad, average 0.016 rad / day; for a value corresponding to November 1-30, 2001, doses of 3, 4 rad, average 0, 11 rad / day are received; the averaged over two months is - 3, 9 rad for 60 days or 0, 065 rad / day. This means that the radiation doses received by the astronauts of 9 missions only during their stay in the lunar space are higher than the doses declared by NASA and should have significant variations.

This contradicts the data from the Apollo missions. With a higher electron flux density, as well as with a long stay outside the Earth's magnetosphere (100 days), the doses may approach the values of radiation sickness - 1.0 Sv. Additionally - Archive of radiation doses from January 1, 2010. Obviously, these radiation doses are summed up with other doses, for example, when passing through the Earth's radiation belt, as a result, we have the values that an astronaut receives when flying to the Moon and returning to Earth.

Discussion

40 years have passed since the Apollo missions. Until now, no one gives an accurate forecast for geomagnetic disturbance. They talk about the probability of geomagnetic disturbances (magnetic storm, magnetic storm) for a day, for several days. The accuracy of the forecast for the week is below 5%. A more unpredictable character is noted for the electrons of the solar wind. This means that with a probability of at least 20-30%, the astronauts of the Apollo missions will fall into an unpredictable powerful stream of electrons from the Earth's radiation belt and the solar wind. The flight of Apollo through the external RPZ and the solar wind in the era of the active sun can be compared to a hussar tape measure, when one cartridge is loaded into an empty drum of a 4-round revolver! 9 attempts were made. The likelihood of not getting acute radiation sickness

Attempt	Probability to survive
1	3 / 4 = 0, 750
2	(3 / 4)2 = 0, 562
3	(3 / 4)3 = 0, 422
4	(3 / 4)4 = 0, 316
5	(3 / 4)5 = 0, 237
6	(3 / 4)6 = 0, 178
7	(3 / 4)7 = 0, 133
8	(3 / 4)8 = 0, 100
9	(3 / 4)9 = 0, 075

This is equivalent to almost 100% of radiation sickness.

To summarize, let's say: double passage of the Earth's radiation belt according to the NASA scheme leads to lethal doses of radiation of 5 Sieverts and more during magnetic storms. Even if the Apollo were accompanied by fortune:

1. radiation doses during the passage of the proton component of the ERP would be 100 times less,
2. the passage of the electronic component of the ERP would be with minimal geomagnetic disturbance and low magnetic activity,
3. low electron density in the solar wind,

then the total radiation dose will be at least 20-30 rem. Radiation doses are not dangerous to human life. However, in this case, the radiation effect by two orders of magnitude higher than the values stated in the official NASA report! Table 3 shows the total and daily radiation doses from manned space flights and data from orbital stations.

Table 3. Total and daily radiation doses from manned flights on spacecraft and on orbital stations

mission	launch and landing	duration	orbital elements	sum. radiation dose, glad [source]	average per day, rad / day
Apollo 7	11.10.1968 / 22.10.1968	10 d 20 h 09m 03 s	orbital flight, orbital altitude 231-297 km	0, 16 [51]	0, 015
Apollo 8	21.12.1968 / 27.12.1968	6 d 03 h 00 m	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 16 [51]	0, 026
Apollo 9	03.03.1969 / 13.03.1969	10 d 01 h 00 m 54 s	orbital flight, orbital altitude 189-192 km, on the third day - 229-239 km	0, 20 [51]	0, 020
Apollo 10	18.05.1969 / 26.05.1969	8 d 00 h 03 m 23 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 48 [51]	0, 060
Apollo 11	16.07.1969 / 24.07.1969	8 d 03 h 18 m 00 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 18 [51]	0, 022
Apollo 12	14.11.1969 / 24.11.1969	10 d 04 h 25 m 24 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 58 [51]	0, 057
Apollo 13	11.04.1970 / 17.04.1970	5 d 22 h 54 m 41 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 24 [51]	0, 041
Apollo 14	01.02.1971 / 10.02.1971	9 d 00 h 05 m 04 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	1, 14 [51]	0, 127
Apollo 15	26.07.1971 / 07.08.1971	12 d 07 h 11 m 53 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 30 [51]	0, 024
Apollo 16	16.04.1972 / 27.04.1972	11 d 01 h 51 m 05 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 51 [51]	0, 046
Apollo 17	07.12.1972 / 19.12.1972	12 d 13 h 51 m 59 s	flight to the moon and return to Earth according to NASA	0, 55 [51]	0, 044
Skylab 2	25.05.1973 / 22.06.1973	28 d 00 h 49 m 49 s	orbital flight, orbital altitude 428-438 km	2, 90-3, 66 [52]	0, 103-0, 131
Skylab 3	28.07.1973 / 25.09.1973	59 d 11 h 09 m 01 s	orbital flight, orbital altitude 423-441 km	5, 87-6, 74 [50]	0, 099-0, 113
Skylab 4	16.11.1973 / 08.02.1974	84 d 01 h 15 m 30 s	orbital flight, orbital altitude 422-437 km	10, 88-12, 83 [50]	0, 129-0, 153
Shuttle Mission 41-C	06.04.1984 / 13.04.1984	6 d 23 h 40 m 07 s	orbital flight, perigee: 222 km apogee: 468 km	0, 559	0, 079
OS "Mir"	1986-2001	15 years	orbital flight, orbital altitude 385-393 km	- – -	0, 020-0, 060 [7]
OS "MKS"	2001-2004	4 years	orbital flight, orbital altitude 337-351 km	- – -	0, 010-0, 020 [7]

It can be noted that the radiation doses of Apollo 0, 022-0, 127 rad / day, received by astronauts during the flight to the moon, do not differ from the radiation doses of 0, 010-0, 153 rad / day during orbital flights. The influence of the Earth's radiation belt is zero. Although the present calculation shows that the radiation doses from missions to the Moon will be 100-1000 times or more higher.

It can also be noted that the lowest radiation effect of 0.010-0.020 rad / day is observed for the ISS orbital station, which has an effective protection of 15 g / cm2 and is in a low reference orbit of the Earth. The highest radiation doses of 0, 099-0, 153 rad / day were noted for the Skylab OS, which has a protection of 7.5 g / cm2 and flew in a high reference orbit.

Conclusion

Apollo did not fly to the moon they circled in a low reference orbit, protected by the Earth's magnetosphere, simulating a flight to the Moon, and received doses of radiation from a conventional orbital flight. In general, the history of "man's stay on the moon" is several decades old! The flight of the Americans to the Moon can be compared to a chess game. On the one hand, there was NASA, the great-power prestige of the nation, politicians and "advocates" of NASA, on the other hand there were Ralph Rene, Yu. I. Mukhin, A. I. Popov and many other enthusiastic opponents. Opponents staged a lot of chess checks, one of the last - "Man on the Moon. The sun in the pictures of Apollo is 20 times larger!" This article, on behalf of all opponents, is declared to be NASA's checkmate. Despite the danger of RPG and politics, of course, humanity will not stay forever on Earth …

The main way to bypass the Van Alen radiation belts is to change the flight path to the Moon and electromagnetic protection from electrons.